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Martin Luther’s Rebellion Leading to the 30-Years War Between the Catholics and Protestants

Martin Luther’s Rebellion Leading to the 30-Years War Between the Catholics and Protestants

By Priye S. Torulagha

Martin Luther (1483 -1546) contributed immensely to shaking up the Christian world, to the extent that the hegemonic power of the Roman Catholic Church was broken in Europe. Who was Martin Luther? He was a German monk, theologian, priest, and professor of theology in Wittenberg University in Germany.

Disgusted by the transgressions of the pope and the Catholic Church, at the age of 34, he compiled 95 theses which pinpointed the sins of the church, particularly the selling of indulgences and posted the theses on the door of the Schlosskirche (Castle Church) of the University of Wittenberg, in Germany on October 31, 1517. He expected an intellectualized theological debate on the matter. At the time, the Catholic Church was corrupt and raised funds by informing worshippers that sins would be forgiven by the pope if they buy indulgences. The practice of selling indulgences started in the Middle Ages. Many individuals bought indulgences in the hope that their sins would be forgiven. As a theologian, Martin Luther fervently argued that no human being or institution can forgive sins since only God can do so. He added that salvation can only be achieved through faith alone and not through church rituals or authority of the pope. He frowned against the monetization of faith (“Martin Luther as priest, heretic and outlaw,” n.d.).

Additionally, he queried why the pope who was very rich did not use his enormous wealth to build St. Peter Bassilica but instead used funds provided by the poor to do so (Cornelius, 2017, October 28). The Lutheran argument about the church and money continues to reverberate in contemporary times as many pastors and church leaders are alleged to compel their congregations to give tithe when some people cannot even eat two meals a day.

After posting the 95 theses, he wrote to his superior, Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz, informing him of his action. Due to the sensitivity of the issue concerning the selling of indulgence, the archbishop did not respond immediately. Why? Because the revenue collected from the selling of indulgences were used to pay the debts of the archbishop in Germany and the funding of the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome by Pope Leo X. The pope felt that Martin Luther challenged his authority since he had the power to grant indulgences. The pope summoned a gathering of high-ranking clergy and theologians to debate Martin Luther on the issue. The disputation took place in Leipzig on July 15, 1519, in which theologian Johannes Eck challenged Martin Luther, but Luther refused to renounce his position on the matter. Since Martin Luther refused to retract his views, Johannes Eck recommended to Pope Leo X to issue an edict or a papal bull declaring Luther’s position as heresy with a threat of excommunicating him from the Catholic Church. The pope issued “Exsurge Domine” compelling Luther to retract his doctrinal challenge of the church in 1520. Again, he refused to retract his views about the church and the pope. He even went as far as to call the pope an “Antichrist.” Pope Leo X issued papal bull Decet Romanum Pontificem on January 3, 1521, resulting in the excommunication of Martin Luther from the Catholic Church. Resultantly, he was declared a heretic by Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in Germany because he refused to attend an invitation, instead, wrote a letter in response (“Martin Luther Excommunicated,” 2025, December 16).

In those days, it was very dangerous to be declared as a heretic by the Christian Church. In some cases, it meant severe torture and possibly death. Having been declared as a heretic through the Edict of Worms in 1521 by Emperor Charles V, Martin Luther was taken away by his supporters, particularly Frederick III of Saxony and hidden in Wartburg Castle in Wittenberg for about a year to avoid being captured and possibly killed by church authorities. While hiding, he adopted the name Junker Jorg or Knight George and translated the New Testament of the Bible from Greek to German (Petro, 2017, October 23). The establishment of the Gutenberg Press facilitated the mass printing of the Bible and other books, thereby, enhancing literacy and the acquisition of knowledge. The printing of his writings spread Luther’s ideas rapidly among those who agreed with his views about the pope and the church.

Protestant Reformation

Following intellectual debates about Luther’s views concerning the pope and the church, he was emboldened to call for the reforming of the church. German nobles and many Christians agreed with him because they were tired of the dictatorial authority of the pope and the church. Luther then suggested to German nobles to reform the oppressive and corrupt Catholic Church and the state. He suggested that it is necessary for the state to have authority over the church and not for the church to have authority over the state.

Thus, he set the ball rolling for the initiation of the Protestant Reformation. The protestants were those Christians who did not agree with some theological positions of the Catholic Church and wanted to establish a separate branch of Christianity that reflected their theological views on Christianity.

At the time in Western Europe, the Roman Catholic Church was the only Christian Church that also acted as the state. Thus, the pope was the spiritual head of the church, and Emperor Charles V was the political head of state (The Holy Roman Empire). Many German nobles supported Luther. Likewise, Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin in Switzerland and others in other parts of Europe joined the protestant movement against the Catholic Church. King Henry VIII of England joined the movement in 1534, resulting in the establishment of the Church of England (Anglican Church). The Anabaptists argued for the complete separation of church and state. Due to the theological disagreement, Catholic Europe was divided between the Catholics and Protestants.

The Protestant Reformation enabled local political rulers to seek autonomy from the Catholic Church. In so doing, they seized lands and properties belonging to the Catholic Church. This further increased ideological hostilities between the Catholics and Protestants (Lutherans) resulting in the German Peasant Revolt in 1524 and continuing with the Knights Revolt and the Schmalkaldic War. To reduce conflict, the Peace of Augsburg Treaty was signed in 1555. It led to the establishment of the policy of cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, their religion) which encouraged each ruler to freely choose or adopt either the Catholic or the Lutheran faith (Mark 2022, August 11).

The 30-Years War

By the seventeenth century, the division between the Catholics and Protestants deepened to the extent that the states which had adopted Lutheranism (Protestantism) resisted the Holy Roman Empire led by the Habsburgs. The 30-years war erupted when Protestant nobles forcefully evicted Catholic officials in Bohemia in 1618 in Prague in protest over the prohibition of religious freedom. This incident resulted in a continental war involving the Holy Roman Empire, (made up of Austria, Bavaria, Bohemia, Habsburg, Saxony, etc.) and Bradenburg-Prussia, Denmark, France, Germany, Spain, and Sweden. The war started on May 23, 1618, in Bohemia and spread to other parts of the continent. The war could be broken into four phases, including (1) Bohemian Revolt 1618 -1620, (2) Denmark’s Engagement 1625 -1629, (3) Sweden’s Engagement 1630 – 1634, and (4) France Engagement 1635 -1645 (Mark, 2022, August 11).

It was a very bloody war that was fought mostly in Central Europe. It ended on October 24, 1648. About 20% of the German population died in the war (Daley, 2017, June 6). Some estimates put the total number of deaths at about 8 million people (Mark, 2022, August 11).

The Thirty-Years War ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia Treaty on October 24, 1648. The treaty followed the format established by the treaty of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 which established the concept of national sovereignty over the right of the state to choose what branch of Christianity to uphold without being compelled by another power to abide by a particular Christian faith.

Conclusion

Martin Luther’s rebellion against the pope and the Catholic Church resulted in the establishment of protestant churches. Therefore, any Christian today who is not a Catholic is basically a member of a Protestant Church. Thus, the Anglican, Baptist, Episcopal, Lutheran, Methodist, Nondenominational, Pentecostal, Seventh Day Adventist, and Presbyterian churches are Protestant because they are products of the Protestant Reformation that Martin Luther instigated when he rebelled against the Roman Catholic Church in Germany in the sixteenth century. Many Christians are not aware of the tumultuous history of Christianity. Most of them rarely pay attention to the history and focus excessively on the reading and interpretation of biblical sayings.

References

Cornelius, E. (2017, October 28). How Martin LLuther’s 95 theses altered history. LPN Media Group Lancaster. https://lancasteronline.com/news/local/how-martin-luther-s-95-theses-altered-history/article_84ddf562-bb41-11e7-b49d-cfa18324c87f.htm.

Daley, J. (2017, June 6). Researchers catalogue the grisly deaths of soldiers in the Thirty-Years War. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/researchers-catalogue-grisly-deaths-soldiers-thirty-years-war-180963531/).

Mark, J. J. (2022, August 11). Thirty Years War. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Thirty_Years’_War/).

Martin Luther Excommunicated.” (2025, December 16). History. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/january-3/martin-luther-excommunicated).

Martin Luther as priest, heretic and outlaw.” (n.d.). Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/martin-luther-priest-heretic-outlaw/luther-the-priest

Petro, B. (2017, October 23). History of Martin Luther: Part 5 -kidnapped. https://billpetro.com/martin-luther-part-5-kidnapped/.

The Council of Nicaea and the Debate Over the Status of Jesus Christ

By Priye S. Torulagha

Today, most Christians have an unquestionable faith that Jesus Christ is not only the son of God but is a manifestation of God. Consequently, no one can seek the salvation of God without going through him. This belief is reinforced daily by both Christian leaders and adherents.

However, it should be noted that in the past, especially during the formative years of Christianity, it was not so. There were some Christians who believed that Jesus Christ was the son of God and coeternal with God and there were those Christians who did not believe that he was coeternal with God. Likewise, there were Christians who believed in the TRINITY (God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Ghost) and there were those who opposed trinity because they felt that it is contradictory to have one God with three personalities. They felt that Trinity tended to be polytheistic (many gods), which is a contradiction of monotheism (One God) that Christianity stands for. Thus, the early Christian Church was divided by ideological factions that made it difficult to develop a coherent theological doctrine about Christianity. There were many factions or cliques that preached different ideas about Christianity, resulting in doctrinal conflicts.

Emperor Constantine who served as both the political and religious (Pontifex Maximus) head of the Roman Empire developed interest in Christianity even though he was a pagan. It should be noted that it was he who first legalized Christianity through the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, thereby, enabling Christians to worship their religion without being persecuted. He did not like the theological division among the Christians and wanted them to resolve their differences to ensure peace in the empire. He invited 200 to 300 Christian bishops to attend a conference at Nicaea in 325 CE to resolve the dispute (Baker, n.d.).

One of the major issues the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE tackled was determining the relationship between the Son (Jesus Christ) and the Father (God). Emperor Constantine felt that it was necessary to resolve the issue since Arius (an Alexandrian church priest in Egypt) raised the matter in 318 CE, thereby causing divisiveness in the Christian movement about the status of Jesus Christ. This issue divided the council into two factions. One faction was led by Saint Athanasius, who later became the bishop of Alexandria in Egypt, and the other faction was led by Arius. Saint Athanasius and his supporters argued that the Son (Jesus Christ) was as divine and coeternal as the Father (God), so there was no difference between Jesus and God. On the other hand, Arius and his supporters maintained that the Father (God) was supreme and unique and, hence, greater than the Son (Jesus Christ) because the Son (Jesus) had a beginning and did not possess the eternity and divinity of the Father (God). Accordingly, the Son (Jesus) was made God by the permission of the Father (God). This view of Jesus Christ and God is known as Arianism.

The debate about the status of Jesus Christ went on from May 20 to June 19, 325 CE. The Athanasian view prevailed as most of the bishops, by a large margin, voted for the view that Jesus Christ was as divine and coeternal as God. On the other hand, the Arian view was rejected and viewed as heretical (Hagen, 2006, June 5). Arian and his followers were threatened and they fled. He was excommunicated and died in a mysterious circumstance. The Athanasian version of the place of Jesus Chris in relations to God is known as Nicean theology (Nicene Creed) and is regarded as the Orthodox version of the Christian belief system.

Although Arius and his followers were declared heretics and excommunicated, nevertheless, the issue between Arianism and Nicean theology continued for about three hundred years. Arianism gained traction among the German tribes; hence the Gothic Church adopted the Arian view of Jesus Christ. Even Emperor Costantius II supported the Arain view. The support led to the replacement of the Nicene Creed in 360 CE as the official creed of the Roman Empire (Dunn, 2021). However, Emperor Theodosius supported the Athanasian or orthodox view as proposed by St. Athanasius, so, in 381 CE, he convened the First Council of Constantinople. The council accepted the orthodox view; hence the Nicene Creed was adopted as the official doctrine of Christianity and Arianism was declared as heresy and banned. Emperor Theodosius seized Arian churches and prohibited Arians from living and worshiping in the cities and towns of the empire (Van Niekerk. 2025, June 17). Some Arian leaders were killed and others fled to avoid being tortured and killed.

Although, the orthodox view of the status of Jesus Christ is pretty much accepted today by most Christians, nevertheless, there are still some Christians and groups which continue to maintain the Arian view that the son cannot be coequal with the father since the son had a beginning while the father does not. The Jehovah Witness organization, for example, is based on the Arian view of Jesus Christ.

It is necessary to read beyond the Bible, especially the King James version to fully grasp the intricacies of the issues that surround Christianity.

References

Baker, A. (n.d.). Early Church History CH 101. https://www.churchhistory101.com/council-nicea-325.php).

Dunn, M. (2021). Chapter – 2 Entry-Level Christianity. Cambridge University. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/arianism/entrylevel-christianity/4C4C797809F8ABB9EE7E6AD90B0844FD.

Hagen, J. B. (2006, June 5). The real story of the Council of Nicaea. American Magazine. https://www.americamagazine.org/from-our-archives/2006/06/05/real-story-council-nicea/.

van Niekerk, A. (2025, June 17). Why did Theodosius succeed in ending the Arian controversy. Revelation by Jesus Christ.com. https://revelationbyjesuschrist.com/theodosius-successful/).

The Christian Adoption of December 25 as a Christmas Day

By Priye S. Torulagha

The December 25, which is known as Christmas Day, is a pre-Christian (Pagan) religious festival which the Roman Catholic Church adopted and institutionalized as a Christian religious festival.

It was the day in which adherents of pre-Christian religions in the Middle East and Europe celebrated the winter solstice. During the occasion, the adherents honored their deities and feasted in a celebratory mood. For instance, the Jews celebrated the Festival of Light; the Germans celebrated the Yule; the Celts honored the deity Balder; the Scandinavians celebrated the sun god, and the Romans celebrated the Festival of Saturnia, where gifts were shared and given to the poor (Graves, 2007, June).

To understand why the Christian Church adopted December 25 as a Christmas Day, it is necessary to briefly explain the history and reason. It should be noted that the first time Christians were legally allowed to practice their religion in the Roman Empire was in 311 CE through the Edict of Serdica. This freedom was limited to the Eastern Roman Empire by Emperor Galerius. During this time, the Roman Empire was divided into the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople and the Western Roman Empire based in Rome. This meant that the Roman Empire had two emperors, one ruled in Constantinople and the other based in Rome.

Then, Emperor Constantine I, after negotiating with Emperor Licinius, formally legalized Christianity through the Edict of Milan in 313 CE. This allowed Christians to openly practice Christianity without having to hide or be persecuted. Then in 325 CE, Emperor Constantine invited various Christian leaders to a conference in Nicaea. Three hundred bishops attended the conference which came to be known as the Council of Nicaea. It was in the Council of Nicaea that the official doctrine of Christianity was adopted. Thus, the Council of Nicaea formalized the doctrine of Christianity and the establishment of the Nicene Creed. It was also in this council that Jesus Christ was deified not only as a son of God but as a manifestation of God.

Having legalized Christianity, Emperor Constantine encouraged the widespread acceptance of the religion among Roman citizens. However, many Romans objected to Christianity and refused to convert to the religion. On the other hand, they eagerly celebrated their paganistic religious festivals, including the winter solstice on December 25. To encourage more people to adopt Christianity, Christian leaders decided to adopt some pagan rituals and festivals to encourage more people to convert to the religion. Thus, in 336 CE, Pope Julius I officially sanctioned the acceptance of December 25 as a Christmas Day. Thereafter, the festival which was associated with the winter solstice was now declared as the birthday of Jesus Christ, hence the Christmas Day. Before 336, there was no celebration of December 25 as a Christmas Day. The adoption of December 25 helped to increase the spread of Christianity in the Roman part of Europe.

Eventually, in 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius enacted the Edict of Thessalonica which made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.

It should be noted that apart from the Christmas Day, the Christian Church also adopted the Easter, the cross, trinity and other rituals and festivals from pre-Christian North African, Middle Eastern and European religions.